Chapter 2 Nationalism in India

Overview

This chapter explores the development of nationalism in India, focusing on the period from the 1920s onwards. It begins with the impact of World War I and the introduction of Satyagraha as a new form of protest by Mahatma Gandhi. The chapter details the launch and unfolding of the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements, highlighting the participation and varying interpretations of 'Swaraj' by different social groups (middle classes in towns, peasants, tribals, plantation workers). It discusses the impact of these movements, the eventual withdrawal and relaunch of Civil Disobedience, and the role of different social groups, including their differing goals and concerns (e.g., peasants wanting revenue reduction, dalits seeking political empowerment, Muslims' concerns about minority status). The chapter also examines how nationalist ideas were spread through symbols, folklore, reinterpretations of history, and the use of language, ultimately contributing to a collective sense of belonging and the struggle for independence.

The First World War, Khilafat And Non-Cooperation

World War I led to economic hardship in India, with increased taxes, rising prices, and forced recruitment, sparking discontent. This created an opportunity for Mahatma Gandhi, who returned to India in 1915, to launch Satyagraha – a movement based on truth and non-violence. He successfully organized movements in Champaran (1917), Kheda (1917), and Ahmedabad (1918). Emboldened, Gandhi planned a nationwide Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act (1919), which gave repressive powers to the government. The protests, including hartals and strikes, led to the brutal Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar. Gandhi then focused on uniting Hindus and Muslims by supporting the Khilafat issue (defending the Ottoman Caliph) and proposed the Non-Cooperation Movement, adopted by the Congress in December 1920.

Why Non-Cooperation?

Gandhiji believed British rule persisted due to Indian cooperation. He proposed a phased movement involving the surrender of titles, boycott of government institutions (police, courts, schools), and foreign goods. If repression continued, a civil disobedience campaign would follow. This plan aimed to mobilize mass participation and achieve Swaraj.

The Movement In The Towns

The movement initially saw significant participation from the middle classes in cities, with students, teachers, and lawyers boycotting institutions. Foreign goods were boycotted, and Indian industries benefited. However, the movement slowed down as Khadi was expensive, and alternative Indian institutions were slow to emerge.

Rebellion In The Countryside

The movement spread to rural areas, involving peasants and tribals with their own specific grievances. In Awadh, peasants under Baba Ramchandra protested against high rents and 'begar' (forced labor). In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a tribal revolt led by Alluri Sitarama Raju used guerrilla warfare against forest laws and oppression, drawing inspiration from Gandhi but also employing violence.

Swaraj In The Plantations

Plantation workers in Assam saw Swaraj as the freedom to move freely and return to their villages. Thousands defied authorities and marched back, only to be caught and brutalized, highlighting the limited understanding and impact of Swaraj for different groups.

Differing Strands within the Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement saw diverse interpretations of Swaraj and participation from various social groups, each with unique goals and struggles, which sometimes conflicted with the Congress's broader agenda.

The Movement In The Towns

Middle-class participation in cities was strong initially, marked by boycotts of foreign goods and institutions. However, it declined due to the cost of Khadi and the lack of viable alternative Indian institutions.

Rebellion In The Countryside

Peasant movements in Awadh (led by Baba Ramchandra) protested against high rents and 'begar.' Tribal revolts in the Gudem Hills (led by Alluri Sitarama Raju) involved guerrilla warfare against forest laws, with Raju claiming supernatural powers and advocating force alongside Gandhian ideals.

Swaraj In The Plantations

Plantation workers viewed Swaraj as freedom of movement and the right to return home. Their attempt to reach their villages was brutally suppressed, showing the limitations of their understanding and the government's response.

Towards Civil Disobedience

Following the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 due to violence, internal differences arose within the Congress regarding participation in elections versus continued mass agitation. Economic depression and the Simon Commission (1928), boycotted by Indians, fueled nationalist sentiment. The Lahore Congress (1929) declared 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence) and marked January 26, 1930, as Independence Day.

The Salt March And The Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the salt law. The Salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (April 1930) galvanized the nation. People across India defied salt laws, boycotted foreign goods, and refused taxes. The movement saw widespread participation but faced brutal repression, leading Gandhi to call it off after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931), which failed to satisfy Congress demands, prompting a relaunch in 1932 that eventually lost momentum.

How Participants Saw The Movement

Different groups had varied goals: Rich peasants sought revenue reduction; poorer peasants desired rent remission; tribals fought against forest laws and 'begar'; while businesses desired freedom from colonial restrictions. Dalit participation was limited due to apprehensions about the Congress, despite Gandhi's efforts against untouchability. Muslim political organizations also showed lukewarm response due to worsening Hindu-Muslim relations and fears about minority status.

The Limits Of Civil Disobedience

The movement faced limitations due to internal divisions, the government's repression, and the varying aspirations of different groups. The Congress's reluctance to support 'no rent' campaigns alienated poorer peasants, and the issue of separate electorates divided Hindus and Muslims, weakening the unified struggle.

The Sense Of Collective Belonging

Nationalism grew through united struggles and cultural processes that fostered a sense of collective identity. Symbols like Bharat Mata (images by Abanindranath Tagore and later interpretations), folklore, songs, popular prints, and reinterpreted history helped unify people and inspire nationalist feelings. The Swadeshi movement utilized symbols like the tricolour flag and spinning wheel to foster national pride and self-reliance.

Quit India Movement

Following the failure of the Cripps Mission and the impact of World War II, Gandhiji launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, demanding immediate British withdrawal. This mass movement saw widespread participation, including from students, workers, and peasants, but was brutally suppressed by the British.